Additionally, some of the greatest advances in medicine were made by the Ottomans. They invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets. Fratricide Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt II, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991 pp 74–75

Geōrgios Phrantzēs (1980). The Fall of the Byzantine Empire: A Chronicle. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-0-87023-290-9– via Google Books. My friends and men of my empire! You all know very well that our forefathers secured this kingdom that we now hold at the cost of many struggles and very great dangers and that, having passed it along in succession from their fathers, from father to son, they handed it down to me. For some of the oldest of you were sharers in many of the exploits carried through by them—those at least of you who are of maturer years—and the younger of you have heard of these deeds from your fathers. They are not such very ancient events nor of such a sort as to be forgotten through the lapse of time. Still, the eyewitness of those who have seen testifies better than does the hearing of deeds that happened but yesterday or the day before. The Ottoman Empire officially ended in 1922 when the title of Ottoman Sultan was eliminated. Turkey was declared a republic on October 29, 1923, when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938), an army officer, founded the independent Republic of Turkey. He then served as Turkey’s first president from 1923 until his death in 1938, implementing reforms that rapidly secularized and westernized the country. Armenian Genocide Smith, Cyril J. (1974). "History of Rape and Rape Laws". Women Law Journal. No.60. p.188. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020 . Retrieved 12 October 2020.For years, the Turkish government has denied responsibility for the genocide. In fact, it’s illegal, even today, to talk about the Armenian Genocide in Turkey. The Ottoman Legacy

a b c Mansel, Philip. "Constantinople: City of the World's Desire 1453–1924". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019 . Retrieved 7 August 2020. Everywhere there was misfortune, everyone was touched by pain" when Mehmed entered the city. "There were lamentations and weeping in every house, screaming in the crossroads, and sorrow in all churches; the groaning of grown men and the shrieking of women accompanied looting, enslavement, separation, and rape." [87]Mehmed entered the Hagia Sophia, "marveling at the sight" of the grand basilica. Witnessing a Ghazi wildly hammering at the marble floor, he asked what he was doing. "It is for the Faith!" the Ghazi said. Mehmed cut him down with his Kilij: "Be satisfied with the booty and the captives; the buildings of the city belong to me." [88] Momigliano, Arnaldo; Schiavone, Aldo (1997). Storia di Roma, 1 (in Italian). Turin: Einaudi. ISBN 88-06-11396-8. Greek: In earlier periods the Greeks used the Byzantine Empire-style name " basileus". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used a direct transliterations of "sultan" (Σουλτάνος Soultanos) and "padishah" (ΠΑΔΙΣΑΧ padisach). [4]Lanning, Michael Lee (2005). The Battle 100: The Stories Behind History's Most Influential Battles. Sourcebooks, Inc. ISBN 1-4022-2475-3. After the Battle of Ankara, İsa Çelebi defeated Musa Çelebi and took the western Anatolian territories for approximately two years. Lowry 2003, p. 78. "Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that..."

a b Kritovoulos, Michael (1954). History of Mehmed the Conqueror. Translated by Riggs, C. T. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-19790-6. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020 . Retrieved 29 May 2020. Guillermier, Pierre; Koutchmy, Serge (1999). Total Eclipses: Science, Observations, Myths, and Legends. Springer. p. 85. ISBN 1-85233-160-7 . Retrieved 27 February 2008.

For others, there was still a distant hope that the lights were the campfires of the troops of John Hunyadi who had come to relieve the city. It is possible that all these phenomena were local effects of the cataclysmic 1452/1453 mystery eruption which occurred around the time of the siege. The "fire" seen may have been an optical illusion due to the reflection of intensely red twilight glow by clouds of volcanic ash high in the atmosphere. [115] Lars Brownworth (15 September 2009). Lost to the West: The Forgotten Byzantine Empire That Rescued Western Civilization. Crown. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-307-46241-1. When Constantine sent emissaries to remind Mehmed that he was breaking his oath and to implore him to at least spare the neighboring villages, Mehmed had the ambassadors executed.

Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 5,871 articles in the main category, and specifying |topic= will aid in categorization. Finkel, Caroline (2007). Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465008506. a b c d e Pertusi, Agostino, ed. (1976). La Caduta di Costantinopoli, I: Le testimonianze dei contemporanei. (Scrittori greci e latini)[ The Fall of Constantinople, I: The Testimony of the Contemporary Greek and Latin Writers] (in Italian). Vol.I. Verona: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla. Guillaume Dufay composed several songs lamenting the fall of the Eastern church, and the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, avowed to take up arms against the Turks. However, as the growing Ottoman power from this date on coincided with the Protestant Reformation and subsequent Counter-Reformation, the recapture of Constantinople became an ever-distant dream. Even France, once a fervent participant in the Crusades, became an ally of the Ottomans.Geographical Record". Geographical Review. 11 (4): 611–629. 1921. ISSN 0016-7428. JSTOR 208254. Less excusable still is the treatment accorded to the statements of Kritopoulos, that 4,500 were killed at the fall of Constantinople. The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totalling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners. [note 4] At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area. [48] :32 [note 5] Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople working for the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well-trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally monks. The garrison used a few small-calibre artillery pieces, which in the end proved ineffective. The rest of the citizens repaired walls, stood guard on observation posts, collected and distributed food provisions, and collected gold and silver objects from churches to melt down into coins to pay the foreign soldiers. After ruling for more than 600 years, the Ottoman Turks are often remembered for their powerful military, ethnic diversity, artistic ventures, religious tolerance and architectural marvels. Lowry, Heath W. (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 115–116.